References – Refined Sugar in the Modern Diet

  1. Johnson RK, Appel LJ, Brands M, et al. Dietary sugars intake and cardiovascular health: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2009;120(11):1011-1020.
  2. Kearns CE, Schmidt LA, Glantz SA. Sugar industry and coronary heart disease research: a historical analysis of internal industry documents. JAMA Intern Med. 2016;176(11):1680-1685.
  3. Westwater ML, Fletcher PC, Ziauddeen Sugar addiction: the state of the science. Eur J Nutr. 2016;55(Suppl 2):55-69.
  4. Elliott SS, Keim NL, Stern JS, Teff K, Havel PJ. Fructose, weight gain, and the insulin resistance syndrome. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002;76(5):911-922.
  5. Mintz SW. Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History. New York, NY: Penguin Books; 1986.
  6. Brunton D. Sugar: A Bittersweet History. New York, NY: Hyperion; 2008.
  7. Bray GA, Popkin BM. Dietary sugar and body weight: have we reached a crisis in the epidemic of obesity and diabetes? Health be damned! Pour on the sugar. Diabetes Care. 2014;37(4):950-956.
  8. Lustig RH, Schmidt LA, Brindis CD. Public health: the toxic truth about sugar. Nature. 2012;482(7383):27-29.
  9. Faeh D, Minehira K, Schwarz JM, Periasamy R, Park S, Tappy L. Effect of fructose overfeeding and fish oil administration on hepatic de novo lipogenesis and insulin sensitivity in healthy men. Diabetes. 2005;54(7):1907-1913.
  10. Johnston RD, Stephenson MC, Crossland H, et al. No difference between high-fructose and high-glucose diets on liver triacylglycerol or biochemistry in healthy overweight men. Gastroenterology. 2013;145(5):1016-1025.
  11. Heyman MB. Lactose intolerance in infants, children, and adolescents. Pediatrics. 2006;118(3):1279-1286.
  12. Malik VS, Hu FB. Sugar-sweetened beverages and cardiometabolic health: an update of the evidence. Nutrients. 2019;11(8):1840.
  13. American Heart Association. Added Sugars. Accessed May 5, 2023. https://www.heart.org/en/healthy-living/healthy-eating/eat-smart/sugar/added-sugars
  14. Avena NM, Rada P, Hoebel BG. Evidence for sugar addiction: Behavioral and neurochemical effects of intermittent, excessive sugar intake. Neurosci Biobehav 2008;32(1):20-39.
  15. Gómez-Pinilla F. Brain foods: the effects of nutrients on brain function. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2008;9(7):568-578.
  16. Sathyanarayana Rao TS, Asha MR, Ramesh BN, Jagannatha Rao KS. Understanding nutrition, depression and mental illnesses. Indian J Psychiatry. 2008;50(2):77-82.
  17. Dantzer R, O’Connor JC, Freund GG, Johnson RW, Kelley KW. From inflammation to sickness and depression: when the immune system subjugates the brain. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2008;9(1):46-56.
  18. Johnson RJ, Murray R, Gillespie S, et al. Fructose consumption: potential mechanisms for its effects to increase visceral adiposity and induce dyslipidemia and insulin resistance. Curr Opin Lipidol. 2014;25(4):1-9.
  19. David LA, Maurice CF, Carmody RN, et al. Diet rapidly and reproducibly alters the human gut microbiome. Nature. 2014;505(7484):559-563.
  20. Kelly JR, Kennedy PJ, Cryan JF, Dinan TG, Clarke G, Hyland NP. Breaking down the barriers: the gut microbiome, intestinal permeability and stress-related psychiatric disorders. Front Cell Neurosci. 2015;9:392.
  21. Johnson RK, et al. Dietary sugars intake and cardiovascular health: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2009;120(11):1011-20.
  22. Stanhope KL. Sugar consumption, metabolic disease and obesity: the state of the controversy. Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci. 2016;53(1):52-67.
  23. Lustig RH, et al. Public health: the toxic truth about sugar. Nature. 2012;482(7383):27-9.
  24. Wiss DA, et al. Sugar addiction: from evolution to revolution. Front Psychiatry. 2018;9:545.
  25. Hu FB, et al. Added sugar and cardiovascular disease risk in children: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2016;133(22):e434-55.
  26. Chiu S, et al. Fructose and cardiometabolic health: what the evidence from sugar-sweetened beverages tells us. J Diabetes. 2018;10(1):55-9.
  27. DiNicolantonio JJ, Lucan SC. The wrong white crystals: not salt but sugar as aetiological in hypertension and cardiometabolic disease. Open Heart. 2014;1(1):e
  28. Moynihan P, Petersen PE. Diet, nutrition and the prevention of dental diseases. Public Health Nutr.
  29. Citation: Jalal, D. I., Smits, G., Johnson, R. J., & Chonchol, M. (2014). Increased Fructose Associates with Elevated Blood Pressure. Journal of the American Society of Nephrology, 26(10), 2077–2085. https://doi.org/10.1681/asn.2014050460)
  30. Te Morenga, L., Mallard, S., & Mann, J. (2012). Dietary sugars and body weight: systematic review and meta-analyses of randomised controlled trials and cohort studies. Obesity Reviews, 13(6), 430–442. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-789X.2011.00958.x)
  31. Malik VS, Hu FB. Fructose and Cardiometabolic Health: What the Evidence From Sugar-Sweetened Beverages Tells Us. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 2015;66(14):1615-1624. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2015.08.025
  32. Yang Q, Zhang Z, Gregg EW, Flanders WD, Merritt R, Hu FB. Added Sugar Intake and Cardiovascular Diseases Mortality Among US Adults. JAMA Internal Medicine. 2014;174(4):516–524. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.13563
  33. DeChristopher LR, Uribarri J, Tucker KL. Intake of High-Fructose Corn Syrup Sweetened Soft Drinks, Fruit Drinks and Apple Juice Is Associated with Prevalent Arthritis in US Adults, Aged 20-30 Years. Nutrients. 2016;8(8):454. doi:10.3390/nu8080454
  34. Chiu S, Sievenpiper JL, de Souza RJ, et al. Effect of fructose on markers of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD): a systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled feeding trials. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2014;68(4):416-423. doi:10.1038/ejcn.2014.8
  35. Gómez-Pinilla, F. Brain foods: the effects of nutrients on brain function. Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 2008;9(7):568-578. doi:10.1038/nrn2421
  36. Westover AN, Marangell A cross-national relationship between sugar consumption and major depression? Depression and Anxiety. 2002;16(3):118-120. doi:10.1002/da.10047
  37. Malik VS, Schulze MB, Hu FB. Intake of sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain: a systematic review. Am J Clin Nutr. 2006;84(2):274-88.
  38. Malik VS, Popkin BM, Bray GA, Despres JP, Willett WC, Hu FB. Sugar-Sweetened Beverages and Risk of Metabolic Syndrome and Type 2 Diabetes: A Meta-Analysis. Diabetes Care. 2010;33(11):2477-2483.
  39. Malik VS, Pan A, Willett WC, Hu FB. Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr. 2013;98(4):1084-102.
  40. Lustig RH. Fructose: metabolic, hedonic, and societal parallels with ethanol. J Am Diet Assoc. 2010;110(9):1307-21.
  41. Johnson RK, Appel LJ, Brands M, et al. Dietary sugars intake and cardiovascular health: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2009;120(11):1011-20.
  42. Mintz, Sidney W. Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History. Penguin Books, 1986.
  43. Walvin, James. Sugar: The World Corrupted: From Slavery to Obesity. Robinson, 2018.
  44. Mintz, Sidney W. “Time, Sugar, and Sweetness.” American Anthropologist, vol. 81, no. 2, 1979, pp. 305-317.
  45. Moynihan, P., & Petersen, P. E. (2004). Diet, nutrition and the prevention of dental diseases. Public health nutrition, 7(1a), 201-226.
  46. Lustig, R. H. (2013). Fructose: metabolic, hedonic, and societal parallels with ethanol. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 113(2), 226-241.
  47. Kearns, C. E., Schmidt, L. A., & Glantz, S. A. (2016). Sugar industry and coronary heart disease research: a historical analysis of internal industry documents. Jama, 316(22), 2340-2348.
  48. (2021). Sugar market size worldwide from 2015/2016 to 2020/2021 (in million metric tons). https://www.statista.com/statistics/491547/global-sugar-market-size/
  49. World Health Organization. (2015). WHO calls on countries to reduce sugars intake among adults and children. https://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2015/sugar-guideline/en/
  50. Kearns CE, Schmidt LA, Glantz SA. Sugar industry and coronary heart disease research: A historical analysis of internal industry documents. JAMA Intern Med. 2016;176(11):1680-1685.
  51. Nestle M. Food Politics: How the Food Industry Influences Nutrition and Health. University of California Press; 2013.
  52. Carpenter DO. The Rise of Neoliberalism and Its Implications for Public Health in the United States. Rev Environ Health. 2011;26(4):205-214.
  53. Gornall J. Coca-Cola’s sponsorship of the National Parks Centennial Celebration. BMJ. 2016;354:i
  54. Stanhope KL, Goran MI. Sugar and health: Introduction to the proceedings of Sugar and Health workshop. Am J Clin Nutr. 2014;100(1):209S-212S.
  55. Kearns CE, Schmidt LA, Glantz SA. Sugar industry and coronary heart disease research: a historical analysis of internal industry documents. JAMA Intern Med. 2016 Nov 1;176(11):1680-5.
  56. Center for Science in the Public Interest. The Food Industry Lobbying Machine. 2017 [cited 2022 May 9]. Available from: https://cspinet.org/protecting-our-health/food-industry-lobbying-machine
  57. Nestle M, Nesheim MC, Ludwig DS. Sweet and lowdown: the role of the sugar industry in influencing national dietary guidelines. Am J Public Health. 2016 Jul;106(7):1204-7.
  58. Malik VS, Hu FB. Fructose and Cardiometabolic Health: What the Evidence From Sugar-Sweetened Beverages Tells Us. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2015;66(14):1615-1624.
  59. Bray GA. Fructose and Risk of Cardiometabolic Disease. Curr Atheroscler 2012;14(6):570-578.
  60. World Health Organization. Fiscal policies for diet and the prevention of noncommunicable diseases. 2016. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/250131/9789241511247-eng.pdf;jsessionid=3B0E197F0F81D82FBA78D2151C47AF52?sequence=1. Accessed February 3, 2022.
  61. The Guardian. Sugar tax: how it has affected the soft drinks industry one year on. https://www.theguardian.com/society/2019/apr/06/sugar-tax-how-it-has-affected-the-soft-drinks-industry-one-year-on. Accessed February 3, 2022.
  62. Malik VS, Popkin BM, Bray GA, Despres JP, Hu FB. Sugar-sweetened beverages, obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and cardiovascular disease risk. Circulation. 2010;121(11):1356-1364.
  63. Johnson RK, Appel LJ, Brands M, et al. Dietary sugars intake and cardiovascular health: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2009;120(11):1011-1020.
  64. Moynihan P, Petersen PE. Diet, nutrition and the prevention of dental diseases. Public Health Nutr. 2004;7(1a):201-226.
  65. Avena NM, Rada P, Hoebel BG. Evidence for sugar addiction: behavioral and neurochemical effects of intermittent, excessive sugar intake. Neurosci Biobehav 2008;32(1):20-39.
  66. S. Department of Agriculture. USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 28.
  67. Kraft Heinz. “Barbecue Sauce.” Kraft Heinz. https://www.kraftheinzfoodservice.com/productsandbrands/brands/bull-s-eye.html.
  68. Newman’s Own. “Balsamic Vinaigrette Dressing.” Newman’s Own. https://www.newmansown.com/foods/balsamic-vinaigrette-dressing/.
  69. S. Department of Agriculture. USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 28.
  70. Kellogg’s. “Frosted Flakes.” Kellogg’s. https://www.kelloggs.com/en_US/products/frosted-flakes-cereal-product.html.
  71. Quaker Oats Company. “Quaker Chewy Granola Bars Chocolate Chip.” Quaker Oats Company. https://www.quakeroats.com/products/granola-snacks/chewy-granola-bars/chocolate-chip.
  72. Malik VS, Hu FB. Fructose and Cardiometabolic Health: What the Evidence From Sugar-Sweetened Beverages Tells Us. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2015;66(14):1615-1624. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2015.08.025
  73. Jamar G, Estadella D, Pisani LP. Sugar consumption and abdominal obesity: A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2019;59(10):1614-1623. doi:10.1080/10408398.2018.1492529
  74. Stanhope KL. Sugar consumption, metabolic disease and obesity: The state of the controversy. Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci. 2016;53(1):52-67. doi:10.3109/10408363.2015.1084990
  75. Malik VS, Willett WC, Hu FB. Global obesity: trends, risk factors and policy implications. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2013;9(1):13-27. doi:10.1038/nrendo.2012.199
  76. Ha V, Sievenpiper JL, de Souza RJ, et al. Effect of Fructose on Blood Pressure: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Controlled Feeding Trials. Hypertension. 2012;59(4):787-795. doi:10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.111.182311
  77. Malik VS, Schulze MB, Hu FB. Intake of sugar-sweetened beverages and risk of type 2 diabetes: a meta-analysis. Diabetes Care. 2010;33(11):2477-2483. doi:10.2337/dc10-1079
  78. de Koning L, Malik VS, Kellogg MD, Rimm EB, Willett WC, Hu FB. Sweetened beverage consumption, incident coronary heart disease, and biomarkers of risk in men. Circulation. 2012;125(14):1735-1741. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.111.067017
  79. Basu S, Yoffe P, Hills N, Lustig RH. The relationship of sugar to population-level diabetes prevalence: an econometric analysis of repeated cross-sectional data. PLoS 2013;8(2):e57873. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0057873
  80. Sievenpiper JL, de Souza RJ, Cozma AI, et al. Fructose vs. glucose and metabolism: do the metabolic differences matter? Curr Opin Lipidol. 2014;25(1):8-19. doi:10.1097/MOL.0000000000000044
  81. Hu, E.A., L. Pan, D. Martinez-Gonzalez, et al. “Sugar-sweetened beverages and risk of obesity and type 2 diabetes: Epidemiologic evidence.” Physiol Behav. 2018; 192: 3-9.
  82. Bremer, A.A., J.K. Byrd, and L.M. Auinger. “Differences in C-reactive protein concentrations between black and white young adults in the United States.” JAMA. 2011; 307(21): 2292-2298.
  83. Malik, V.S., and F.B. Hu. “Sweeteners and Risk of Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes: The Role of Sugar-Sweetened Beverages.” Curr Diab Rep. 2012; 12(2): 195-203.
  84. Brusick A critical review of the genetic toxicity of steviol and steviol glycosides. Food Chem Toxicol. 2008;46 Suppl 7:S83-S91. doi: 10.1016/j.fct.2008.05.007.
  85. Sun Y, Li X, Zeng Y, Lu X, Liang J. Erythritol: An Interpretive Summary of Biochemistry, Application, and Emerging Research. Biomed Res Int. 2019;2019:3549596. doi: 10.1155/2019/3549596.
  86. Söderling E, Laaksonen O, Mäkinen KK. Oral xylitol administration reduces oral colonization of mutans streptococci. J Dent Res. 2000;79(11):1735-1739. doi: 10.1177/00220345000790110701.
  87. Krawitz C, Mraheil MA, Stein M, Imirzalioglu C, Domann E, Pleschka S, et al. Inhibitory activity of a standardized elderberry liquid extract against clinically-relevant human respiratory bacterial pathogens and influenza A and B viruses. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2011;11:16. doi: 10.1186/1472-6882-11-16.
  88. Swithers SE. Artificial sweeteners produce the counterintuitive effect of inducing metabolic derangements. Trends Endocrinol Metab. 2013;24(9):431-441. doi: 10.1016/j.tem.2013.05.005
  89. Mäkinen KK. Gastrointestinal Disturbances Associated with the Consumption of Sugar Alcohols with Special Consideration of Xylitol: Scientific Review and Instructions for Dentists and Other Health-Care Professionals. Int J Dent. 2016;2016:5967907. doi: 10.1155/2016/5967907
  90. Lee HW, Savaiano DA. Low-Digestible Carbohydrates and Body Weight and Glycemic Control in Type 2 Diabetes. J Am Coll Nutr. 2019;38(4):370-385. doi: 10.1080/07315724.2018.1533423
  91. Raben A, Vasilaras TH, Møller AC, Astrup A. Sucrose compared with artificial sweeteners: a clinical intervention study of effects on energy intake, appetite, and energy expenditure after 10 wk of supplementation in overweight subjects. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002;76(4):721-729. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/76.4.721
  92. Soffritti M, Padovani M, Tibaldi E, Falcioni L, Manservisi F, Belpoggi Sucralose administered in feed, beginning prenatally through lifespan, induces hematopoietic neoplasias in male swiss mice. Int J Occup Environ Health. 201